Abstract
This mini-paper looks at the importance of teaching academic writing to English Language Learners (ELLs) in Asia. Writing is the highest form of learning and research suggests that ELLs do not acquire sufficient fluency in academic language, limiting their performance in international tertiary education. For this reason, the introduction of academic language into English Language Development (ELD) is essential. and some strategies for assisting the acquisition of academic language are suggested.
Introduction
“Evidence of the growing importance of English L2 (sic) writing is becoming increasingly dominant in both educational programs and in professional writing in non-English dominant countries” (Leki, 2001).
In itself, learning to write does not necessarily mean that learners will gain the necessary language to further themselves academically. The ability to write well academically at tertiary levels is a prerequisite of university students. It is likely that students will show signs of fluency in English at a social level, but will find difficulty in more academic assignments due to not having acquired the relevant academic language. There is growing evidence that lack of ability in academic writing affects overall academic competence (Giridharan, 2005; Coffin, 2013; Bongolan & Moir, 2005; Xudong, Cheng, Varaprasad & Leng, 2014).
The academic language acquisition process itself hones critical thinking skills and builds confidence in communication with native speakers. This is particularly pertinent for those wishing to study abroad and also to the educational situation in Thailand where the need for the development of higher-order thinking skills has been highlighted by its Education Reform Act of 1999. Research suggests that the strategic introduction of academic language into the curriculum not only helps learners to progress academically but also improves their existing grammar knowledge (Coffin, 2013).
Literature Review
Research carried out on a foundation studies program in Malaysia (Giridharan, 2005) discovered that learners’ lack of academic writing ability negatively affected their overall academic performance. Nevertheless, it found that ‘feeding in’ academic language during the language learning process, can prepare learners for the step up to tertiary level education and beyond. In Xudong et al’s (2014) study at the National University of Singapore, it was found that academic writing ability was improved through the introduction of an academic writing course.
Further studies carried out in a Thailand university context, Coffin (2013) ask the question: “Can Problem Based Learning (PBL) principles and practices be applied to language education, especially within an academic writing course?” It looks at how PBL principles were used in the restructuring of an academic writing program due to reoccurring issues of concern on the course, highlighted by both teachers and students. Breiseth’s article (2013) explains the importance of academic language in the classroom and introduces some of the concepts and terminology used and studies carried out in the USA by Bongolan et al (2005) identify the teaching of academic English as one of the challenges that teachers face and provides suggested strategies for teachers to implement.
Social and Academic Language
In order for academic language to be introduced, the difference between social language and academic language needs to be established. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) refers to social language and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is used while referring to academic language. BICS is the language used in everyday communication in oral and written forms. A good example of this is the writing of an email or a shopping list. Similarly, when students are talking to each other informally or when carrying out everyday tasks such as going to the store, the language used would be BICS social English. Conversely, academic English (CALP) is more complex; it is the language used in text books, research papers, assessments and presentations. An ELL student may well not have had any exposure to it but it contains the language necessary for advancement in education (Breiseth 2013).
Academic Writing in Asian Contexts
There is a dearth of studies relating to the development of ELLs academic writing skills in the South East Asian region but what there is, confirms inadequacies of university ELLs abilities in English academic writing (Olivas & Li, 2006). In Malaysia, a lack of exposure to academic language in secondary school has lead to students experiencing difficulties when expected to write papers at tertiary level. There is a general perception among students that academic writing is overwhelming, mainly due to ELLs’ percieved lack of grammatical and vocabulary aptitude (Giridharan, 2012).
In Thailand, studies during an effort to improve levels of academic writing competence at Mae Fah Luang University, found that the implementation of PBL into an existing writing course reaped benefits. The aim of implementing PBL was to rectify issues with the correlation between the learning process and final grades and to develop students’ practical skills and academic knowledge. Some of the reformulated objects of the course included the development of research projects, collaborative learning, peer assessment, abstract and editing skills and the development of communication and oral presentation skills. Although successful, it was highlighted that the teacher needs to be proactive throughout the learning process and should have additional strategies for learners who get left behind (Coffin, 2013).
Furthermore, the National University of Singapore examined the impact that an English for Academic Purposes course had on the development of academic writing abilities of ELL graduate students. It compared papers students had written prior to taking the course with those written after it, in terms of grammar accuracy, fluency, and use of academic vocabulary. Interestingly, it concluded that overall paper-writing quality had improved and participants were able to use more academic vocabulary (Xudong et al, 2014).
The need for academic language acquisition to be addressed has also been recognised via studies carried out in the USA by way of a statewide survey of teachers in California (Bongolan and Moir, 2005) and as a result, some specific strategies were formed which are looked at in the next section.
Suggested Strategies for Writing Academic Language
As seen, these studies suggest that there needs to be more focus on the writing of academic language among ELLs and that there are approaches that can be employed to develop this key skill. Giridharan (2012) highlights the importance of targeted activities to improve grammar, sentence and paragraph structures and for there to be an awareness of individuals’ capabilities and their potential to develop academic writing skills. Methods such as providing examples of strategies for improving organizing and planning, drafting and editing can advance these abilities. The aptitude to evaluate other learners’ work should be improved and early exposure to academic vocabulary and structure is suggested improve overall academic writing proficiency.
In their case study, Bongolan et al (2005) put forward six strategies that accelerate academic language development. These strategies, based on multiple case studies from 1995 onwards, are shown to be useful for developing content knowledge, interpersonal English communication skills and also the use of academic language associated with other subjects.
The six key strategies are as follows:
* Vocabulary and language development – teachers introduce and explore more academic terms.
* Guided interaction – the structuring of lessons to allow students to work together to understand new academic concepts.
* Metacognition and authentic assessment – the teacher gives linear instruction on thinking skills as opposed to memorization. In authentic assessments, teachers implement various different activities to check students’ understanding of new concepts.
* Explicit instruction – teacher gives instruction on academic language and concepts needed to complete classroom tasks.
* Meaning-based context and universal themes using meaningful, culturally-relevant content from students’ everyday lives to introduce academic concepts increases motivation.
* Modeling, graphic organizers, and visuals–diagrams and charts help students to recognize and organize target information and make content more accessible (Bongolan et al, 2005).
Lastly, as data from the study carried out by Curtin University showed, most students enjoyed writing tasks, drafting their essays and working with classmates to brainstorm ideas and opinions for their papers (Giridharan, 2012). This strongly suggests that constructivist or socio-cultural learning environments can be utilized in the process of ELL academic writing. As the learner interacts with their teacher and peers, academic thought and analysis is developed and peer editing gradually reduces the amount of errors made (Myles, 2002).
Conclusion and Future Study
To sum up, this paper proposed that the key to academic success in ELLs is the learning of the necessary academic language to be able to perform at a higher academic level. The research shows that exposure to academic language enables this progress to be made and can also lead to an overall improvement in language use, leaving no doubt that the introduction of these strategies is beneficial.
In particular, the research in Thailand shows that implementation was successful in an existing academic writing program in terms of the enhancement of learning experiences of both students and teachers. Despite this, it is essential for the teacher to remain aware of his or her role as an active facilitator in the learning process rather than dictator, which has been the customary teaching style in the region.
In all, it is these learner-based constructivist approaches that are proven to be most effective for the development of academic writing, not only in Asia, but worldwide. It is also proven that where there has been no formal exposure to academic language, focused writing programs can be successfully implemented. However, these methodologies require sensitive introduction in regions whereby more traditional teaching approaches are the norm.
REFERENCES
Bongolan, R., & Moir, E. (2005). Six Key Strategies for Teachers of English Language Learners (1st ed., pp. 1-5). Santa Cruz. Retrieved from: https://uteach.utexas.edu/sites/default/files/files/SixKeyStrategiesELL.pdf
Breiseth, L. (2013) Aacademic Language and ELLs: What Teachers Need to Know. (Class Handout BA TESOL, Thongsook College)
Coffin, P. (2013). The Impact of the Implementation of the PBL for EFL Interdisciplinary Study in. 1st ed. [ebook] Aalborg. Retrieved from: http://tree.utm.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-Impact-of-the-Implementation-of-the-PBL-for-EFL-Interdisciplinary-Study-in-a-Local-Thai-Context-.pdf
Giridharan, B. (2012). Identifying Gaps in Academic Writing of ESL Students (1st ed.). Retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535491.pdf
Leki, L. (2001). Material, educational, and ideological challenges of teaching EFL writing at the turn of the century. International Journal of English Studies, 1(2), 197-209.
Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error analysis in student texts. TESL-EJ, 6(2).Retrieved from: http://www.tesl.ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume6/ej22al/
Olivas, M., & Li, C. (2006). Understanding stressors of international students in higher education: What college counselors and personnel need to know. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33, 217-222.
Xudong, D., Cheng, L., Varaprasad, C., &Leng, L. (2014).Academic Writing Development of ESL / EFL Graduate Students in NUS (1st ed.). University of Singapore. Retrieved from: http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/research/books/relt/vol9/no2/119to138_deng.pdf
This mini-paper looks at the importance of teaching academic writing to English Language Learners (ELLs) in Asia. Writing is the highest form of learning and research suggests that ELLs do not acquire sufficient fluency in academic language, limiting their performance in international tertiary education. For this reason, the introduction of academic language into English Language Development (ELD) is essential. and some strategies for assisting the acquisition of academic language are suggested.
Introduction
“Evidence of the growing importance of English L2 (sic) writing is becoming increasingly dominant in both educational programs and in professional writing in non-English dominant countries” (Leki, 2001).
In itself, learning to write does not necessarily mean that learners will gain the necessary language to further themselves academically. The ability to write well academically at tertiary levels is a prerequisite of university students. It is likely that students will show signs of fluency in English at a social level, but will find difficulty in more academic assignments due to not having acquired the relevant academic language. There is growing evidence that lack of ability in academic writing affects overall academic competence (Giridharan, 2005; Coffin, 2013; Bongolan & Moir, 2005; Xudong, Cheng, Varaprasad & Leng, 2014).
The academic language acquisition process itself hones critical thinking skills and builds confidence in communication with native speakers. This is particularly pertinent for those wishing to study abroad and also to the educational situation in Thailand where the need for the development of higher-order thinking skills has been highlighted by its Education Reform Act of 1999. Research suggests that the strategic introduction of academic language into the curriculum not only helps learners to progress academically but also improves their existing grammar knowledge (Coffin, 2013).
Literature Review
Research carried out on a foundation studies program in Malaysia (Giridharan, 2005) discovered that learners’ lack of academic writing ability negatively affected their overall academic performance. Nevertheless, it found that ‘feeding in’ academic language during the language learning process, can prepare learners for the step up to tertiary level education and beyond. In Xudong et al’s (2014) study at the National University of Singapore, it was found that academic writing ability was improved through the introduction of an academic writing course.
Further studies carried out in a Thailand university context, Coffin (2013) ask the question: “Can Problem Based Learning (PBL) principles and practices be applied to language education, especially within an academic writing course?” It looks at how PBL principles were used in the restructuring of an academic writing program due to reoccurring issues of concern on the course, highlighted by both teachers and students. Breiseth’s article (2013) explains the importance of academic language in the classroom and introduces some of the concepts and terminology used and studies carried out in the USA by Bongolan et al (2005) identify the teaching of academic English as one of the challenges that teachers face and provides suggested strategies for teachers to implement.
Social and Academic Language
In order for academic language to be introduced, the difference between social language and academic language needs to be established. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) refers to social language and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is used while referring to academic language. BICS is the language used in everyday communication in oral and written forms. A good example of this is the writing of an email or a shopping list. Similarly, when students are talking to each other informally or when carrying out everyday tasks such as going to the store, the language used would be BICS social English. Conversely, academic English (CALP) is more complex; it is the language used in text books, research papers, assessments and presentations. An ELL student may well not have had any exposure to it but it contains the language necessary for advancement in education (Breiseth 2013).
Academic Writing in Asian Contexts
There is a dearth of studies relating to the development of ELLs academic writing skills in the South East Asian region but what there is, confirms inadequacies of university ELLs abilities in English academic writing (Olivas & Li, 2006). In Malaysia, a lack of exposure to academic language in secondary school has lead to students experiencing difficulties when expected to write papers at tertiary level. There is a general perception among students that academic writing is overwhelming, mainly due to ELLs’ percieved lack of grammatical and vocabulary aptitude (Giridharan, 2012).
In Thailand, studies during an effort to improve levels of academic writing competence at Mae Fah Luang University, found that the implementation of PBL into an existing writing course reaped benefits. The aim of implementing PBL was to rectify issues with the correlation between the learning process and final grades and to develop students’ practical skills and academic knowledge. Some of the reformulated objects of the course included the development of research projects, collaborative learning, peer assessment, abstract and editing skills and the development of communication and oral presentation skills. Although successful, it was highlighted that the teacher needs to be proactive throughout the learning process and should have additional strategies for learners who get left behind (Coffin, 2013).
Furthermore, the National University of Singapore examined the impact that an English for Academic Purposes course had on the development of academic writing abilities of ELL graduate students. It compared papers students had written prior to taking the course with those written after it, in terms of grammar accuracy, fluency, and use of academic vocabulary. Interestingly, it concluded that overall paper-writing quality had improved and participants were able to use more academic vocabulary (Xudong et al, 2014).
The need for academic language acquisition to be addressed has also been recognised via studies carried out in the USA by way of a statewide survey of teachers in California (Bongolan and Moir, 2005) and as a result, some specific strategies were formed which are looked at in the next section.
Suggested Strategies for Writing Academic Language
As seen, these studies suggest that there needs to be more focus on the writing of academic language among ELLs and that there are approaches that can be employed to develop this key skill. Giridharan (2012) highlights the importance of targeted activities to improve grammar, sentence and paragraph structures and for there to be an awareness of individuals’ capabilities and their potential to develop academic writing skills. Methods such as providing examples of strategies for improving organizing and planning, drafting and editing can advance these abilities. The aptitude to evaluate other learners’ work should be improved and early exposure to academic vocabulary and structure is suggested improve overall academic writing proficiency.
In their case study, Bongolan et al (2005) put forward six strategies that accelerate academic language development. These strategies, based on multiple case studies from 1995 onwards, are shown to be useful for developing content knowledge, interpersonal English communication skills and also the use of academic language associated with other subjects.
The six key strategies are as follows:
* Vocabulary and language development – teachers introduce and explore more academic terms.
* Guided interaction – the structuring of lessons to allow students to work together to understand new academic concepts.
* Metacognition and authentic assessment – the teacher gives linear instruction on thinking skills as opposed to memorization. In authentic assessments, teachers implement various different activities to check students’ understanding of new concepts.
* Explicit instruction – teacher gives instruction on academic language and concepts needed to complete classroom tasks.
* Meaning-based context and universal themes using meaningful, culturally-relevant content from students’ everyday lives to introduce academic concepts increases motivation.
* Modeling, graphic organizers, and visuals–diagrams and charts help students to recognize and organize target information and make content more accessible (Bongolan et al, 2005).
Lastly, as data from the study carried out by Curtin University showed, most students enjoyed writing tasks, drafting their essays and working with classmates to brainstorm ideas and opinions for their papers (Giridharan, 2012). This strongly suggests that constructivist or socio-cultural learning environments can be utilized in the process of ELL academic writing. As the learner interacts with their teacher and peers, academic thought and analysis is developed and peer editing gradually reduces the amount of errors made (Myles, 2002).
Conclusion and Future Study
To sum up, this paper proposed that the key to academic success in ELLs is the learning of the necessary academic language to be able to perform at a higher academic level. The research shows that exposure to academic language enables this progress to be made and can also lead to an overall improvement in language use, leaving no doubt that the introduction of these strategies is beneficial.
In particular, the research in Thailand shows that implementation was successful in an existing academic writing program in terms of the enhancement of learning experiences of both students and teachers. Despite this, it is essential for the teacher to remain aware of his or her role as an active facilitator in the learning process rather than dictator, which has been the customary teaching style in the region.
In all, it is these learner-based constructivist approaches that are proven to be most effective for the development of academic writing, not only in Asia, but worldwide. It is also proven that where there has been no formal exposure to academic language, focused writing programs can be successfully implemented. However, these methodologies require sensitive introduction in regions whereby more traditional teaching approaches are the norm.
REFERENCES
Bongolan, R., & Moir, E. (2005). Six Key Strategies for Teachers of English Language Learners (1st ed., pp. 1-5). Santa Cruz. Retrieved from: https://uteach.utexas.edu/sites/default/files/files/SixKeyStrategiesELL.pdf
Breiseth, L. (2013) Aacademic Language and ELLs: What Teachers Need to Know. (Class Handout BA TESOL, Thongsook College)
Coffin, P. (2013). The Impact of the Implementation of the PBL for EFL Interdisciplinary Study in. 1st ed. [ebook] Aalborg. Retrieved from: http://tree.utm.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/The-Impact-of-the-Implementation-of-the-PBL-for-EFL-Interdisciplinary-Study-in-a-Local-Thai-Context-.pdf
Giridharan, B. (2012). Identifying Gaps in Academic Writing of ESL Students (1st ed.). Retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535491.pdf
Leki, L. (2001). Material, educational, and ideological challenges of teaching EFL writing at the turn of the century. International Journal of English Studies, 1(2), 197-209.
Myles, J. (2002). Second language writing and research: The writing process and error analysis in student texts. TESL-EJ, 6(2).Retrieved from: http://www.tesl.ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume6/ej22al/
Olivas, M., & Li, C. (2006). Understanding stressors of international students in higher education: What college counselors and personnel need to know. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33, 217-222.
Xudong, D., Cheng, L., Varaprasad, C., &Leng, L. (2014).Academic Writing Development of ESL / EFL Graduate Students in NUS (1st ed.). University of Singapore. Retrieved from: http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/research/books/relt/vol9/no2/119to138_deng.pdf