Abstract
Approaches to developing curricula in English Language Development (ELD) have traditionally
arisen from educational establishments with a focus on teaching and learning English. However,
with the proliferation of community Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) foundations in
Thailand whose remit is to build capacity among their local staff in areas such as agriculture and
social care, this paper looks at approaches and considerations to curriculum development in this
particular area of English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
Keywords: language acquisition, curriculum development.
Approaches to developing curricula in English Language Development (ELD) have traditionally
arisen from educational establishments with a focus on teaching and learning English. However,
with the proliferation of community Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) foundations in
Thailand whose remit is to build capacity among their local staff in areas such as agriculture and
social care, this paper looks at approaches and considerations to curriculum development in this
particular area of English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
Keywords: language acquisition, curriculum development.
With the onset of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), organizations
and foundations in Thailand are currently looking to build capacity among their local staff to
share skills and research findings across borders in pertinent areas such as agriculture, medicine
and social care. As the lingua franca of ASEAN is English, such projects now recognize the
impending importance of ELD in their organizations and accept that general English is not
conducive to the development of field-specific skills. However, the introduction of a tailored
ESP course, narrows these goals down to focus on language which is most useful for an
organization’s successful transition into the ASEAN community. This paper examines the
curriculum development process of such an organization, with a focus on an ends – means model
starting with the skills the learner requires from which the course of study is designed. This
includes goals and objectives derived from an initial needs analysis, methods and materials to be
used, and appropriate evaluation.
and foundations in Thailand are currently looking to build capacity among their local staff to
share skills and research findings across borders in pertinent areas such as agriculture, medicine
and social care. As the lingua franca of ASEAN is English, such projects now recognize the
impending importance of ELD in their organizations and accept that general English is not
conducive to the development of field-specific skills. However, the introduction of a tailored
ESP course, narrows these goals down to focus on language which is most useful for an
organization’s successful transition into the ASEAN community. This paper examines the
curriculum development process of such an organization, with a focus on an ends – means model
starting with the skills the learner requires from which the course of study is designed. This
includes goals and objectives derived from an initial needs analysis, methods and materials to be
used, and appropriate evaluation.
Literature Review
In Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching: Forward, Central, and Backward
Design Richards (2010) concludes that input from teachers and learners, the learning process,
content and output all influence the evolution of either a forward, central or backward design of a
syllabus. In his Taxonomy (1956), Benjamin Bloom revolutionized curriculum development by
designing a rubric to enable educators to organize measurable learning outcomes from
memorization and recall, to synthesis and evaluation.
In Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching: Forward, Central, and Backward
Design Richards (2010) concludes that input from teachers and learners, the learning process,
content and output all influence the evolution of either a forward, central or backward design of a
syllabus. In his Taxonomy (1956), Benjamin Bloom revolutionized curriculum development by
designing a rubric to enable educators to organize measurable learning outcomes from
memorization and recall, to synthesis and evaluation.
Looking at methods, University of Southern California linguistics expert Stephen
Krashen’s (1988) theory of Second Language acquisition, which includes the Input Hypothesis
and Affective Filter Hypothesis, has impacted ELD ever since. He theorized that input needs to be comprehensible if language is to be acquired and that factors such as anxiety, low motivation and
low self-confidence can all contribute to the raising of the Affective Filter, which is, essentially,
a mental block preventing production and acquisition of language. Controversially, Meddings &
Thornbury’s (2009) book ‘Teaching Unplugged’ proposed that technology and materials in the
classroom can act as a significant barrier between students and their teacher resulting in the
stifling of natural language production. Vygotsky’s (1978) research ‘Interaction Between
Learning and Development’ emphasized the part social interaction plays in the role of language
acquisition as part of his Sociocultural Theory.
Krashen’s (1988) theory of Second Language acquisition, which includes the Input Hypothesis
and Affective Filter Hypothesis, has impacted ELD ever since. He theorized that input needs to be comprehensible if language is to be acquired and that factors such as anxiety, low motivation and
low self-confidence can all contribute to the raising of the Affective Filter, which is, essentially,
a mental block preventing production and acquisition of language. Controversially, Meddings &
Thornbury’s (2009) book ‘Teaching Unplugged’ proposed that technology and materials in the
classroom can act as a significant barrier between students and their teacher resulting in the
stifling of natural language production. Vygotsky’s (1978) research ‘Interaction Between
Learning and Development’ emphasized the part social interaction plays in the role of language
acquisition as part of his Sociocultural Theory.
Needs Assessment
The concept of needs assessment developed from the emergence of ESP from general
English which was deemed to be rather like ‘the road to nowhere’, due to there being no specific
learning outcomes (Richards, 2010). The needs assessment process, which can comprise of, for
instance, diagnostic tests, pre-course meetings and interviews, ideally involves learners,
educators and the organization itself. Information can be gathered on levels of learning ability,
strengths and weaknesses and where differentiation may be required for those with learning or
other disabilities. If the educator is not an expert in the field, this also provides the opportunity
for familiarization with the organization’s vision and other aspects of its work.
The concept of needs assessment developed from the emergence of ESP from general
English which was deemed to be rather like ‘the road to nowhere’, due to there being no specific
learning outcomes (Richards, 2010). The needs assessment process, which can comprise of, for
instance, diagnostic tests, pre-course meetings and interviews, ideally involves learners,
educators and the organization itself. Information can be gathered on levels of learning ability,
strengths and weaknesses and where differentiation may be required for those with learning or
other disabilities. If the educator is not an expert in the field, this also provides the opportunity
for familiarization with the organization’s vision and other aspects of its work.
Analysis of the needs assessment then enables course goals to be set and these should be
re-examined prior to each new course to keep in-step with changing professional requirements.
According to Richards (2010), curricula can be designed from either a backward, central or
forward standpoint. In the needs-lead field of community development, the assessed goals would
constitute a backward design model based on an ends-means approach. In this field, a typical
assessment would produce goals such as public speaking skills, increasing fluency & accuracy,
building confidence and lowering the affective filter for which objectives then need to be
devised.
re-examined prior to each new course to keep in-step with changing professional requirements.
According to Richards (2010), curricula can be designed from either a backward, central or
forward standpoint. In the needs-lead field of community development, the assessed goals would
constitute a backward design model based on an ends-means approach. In this field, a typical
assessment would produce goals such as public speaking skills, increasing fluency & accuracy,
building confidence and lowering the affective filter for which objectives then need to be
devised.
The objectives are the ways in which these goals can be achieved – in broad terms, for
example, “the student will be able to use transitional phrases” and these should also be
continually re-evaluated to ensure that the course purposes remain in focus. These objectives
should ideally facilitate the development of critical thinking skills, according to Bloom’s
Taxonomy (1956).
example, “the student will be able to use transitional phrases” and these should also be
continually re-evaluated to ensure that the course purposes remain in focus. These objectives
should ideally facilitate the development of critical thinking skills, according to Bloom’s
Taxonomy (1956).
Methods and Materials
Once goals and objectives are established, suitable methods and materials should be
selected to facilitate the learning process. Depending on class size, constructivist group activities
in functional contexts can enable the learners to ‘construct’ their own knowledge (Vygotsky,
1978). Learning takes place via a ‘more knowledgeable other’ or MKO which is a peer (or
teacher) with more advanced knowledge. Through engagement with the MKO, learning takes
place in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is where the brain connects existing
knowledge with that which is gained from interaction with their MKO. Similarly, Krashen
(1988) states that using material or texts which are just above the learners’ level, are also
effective, as are using gesture and realia to help learners understand the message which is being
conveyed; when the message is understood, the language can be comprehended. Appropriate
materials and technology should also be made available according to the learning goals; for instance,
to prepare for an eventual evaluated presentation, students will need pens, notebooks,
poster paper, use of a whiteboard and relevant technology such as a laptop and projector.
However, Meddings & Thornbury (2009) argue that a materials and technology light
approach can “uncover the hidden curriculum” and that lessons which are too structured,
can stifle production of emergent language. An implementation of this approach, however,
would shift the curriculum model nearer to forward design.
Once goals and objectives are established, suitable methods and materials should be
selected to facilitate the learning process. Depending on class size, constructivist group activities
in functional contexts can enable the learners to ‘construct’ their own knowledge (Vygotsky,
1978). Learning takes place via a ‘more knowledgeable other’ or MKO which is a peer (or
teacher) with more advanced knowledge. Through engagement with the MKO, learning takes
place in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is where the brain connects existing
knowledge with that which is gained from interaction with their MKO. Similarly, Krashen
(1988) states that using material or texts which are just above the learners’ level, are also
effective, as are using gesture and realia to help learners understand the message which is being
conveyed; when the message is understood, the language can be comprehended. Appropriate
materials and technology should also be made available according to the learning goals; for instance,
to prepare for an eventual evaluated presentation, students will need pens, notebooks,
poster paper, use of a whiteboard and relevant technology such as a laptop and projector.
However, Meddings & Thornbury (2009) argue that a materials and technology light
approach can “uncover the hidden curriculum” and that lessons which are too structured,
can stifle production of emergent language. An implementation of this approach, however,
would shift the curriculum model nearer to forward design.
Evaluation
In general terms, there are two common types of assessment which are used for
evaluation: formative and summative. The goal of formative assessment is to provide feedback
from ongoing monitoring throughout the course which can be compiled via anecdotal notes,
quizzes, tests and essays; whereas summative assessments usually come in the form of entrance
exams or to evaluate learning either at the end of term or year. These can show how students
have mastered curriculum content and subsequently enable the teacher to attend to areas of the
syllabus requiring adjustment. Importantly, it is pertinent for the educator to utilize reflective
practice to continually assess the effectiveness of the course, making changes wherever
necessary to ensure that goals will be met (Fcit.usf.edu, 2015).
In general terms, there are two common types of assessment which are used for
evaluation: formative and summative. The goal of formative assessment is to provide feedback
from ongoing monitoring throughout the course which can be compiled via anecdotal notes,
quizzes, tests and essays; whereas summative assessments usually come in the form of entrance
exams or to evaluate learning either at the end of term or year. These can show how students
have mastered curriculum content and subsequently enable the teacher to attend to areas of the
syllabus requiring adjustment. Importantly, it is pertinent for the educator to utilize reflective
practice to continually assess the effectiveness of the course, making changes wherever
necessary to ensure that goals will be met (Fcit.usf.edu, 2015).
Conclusion
From an educator’s perspective, syllabus design for organizations for which learning
English has not previously been a priority, can be viewed either as a huge challenge or a great
opportunity to create a course structure which can, from thereon in, be utilized and adapted to
meet the ever changing demands of the organization’s overall goals. Introducing constructivist
group work methods to curricula in Thailand, is essential if it is to move away from traditional
linear methods of instruction which do not facilitate progression from lower order thinking skills
such as memorization and recall, to the higher critical thinking skills essential for important
roles such as those in medicine, agronomy and doctoral research. Lastly, if goals require
utilization of technology, it is obviously not appropriate to consider its complete omittance;
however, with this in mind, a well-structured curriculum can still allow space and time for
organic language production to take place. In terms of evaluation for this area of ESP, ongoing
formative assessment with task-related activities are more appropriate rather than summative
tests which can create negative backwash for both learners and teachers.
From an educator’s perspective, syllabus design for organizations for which learning
English has not previously been a priority, can be viewed either as a huge challenge or a great
opportunity to create a course structure which can, from thereon in, be utilized and adapted to
meet the ever changing demands of the organization’s overall goals. Introducing constructivist
group work methods to curricula in Thailand, is essential if it is to move away from traditional
linear methods of instruction which do not facilitate progression from lower order thinking skills
such as memorization and recall, to the higher critical thinking skills essential for important
roles such as those in medicine, agronomy and doctoral research. Lastly, if goals require
utilization of technology, it is obviously not appropriate to consider its complete omittance;
however, with this in mind, a well-structured curriculum can still allow space and time for
organic language production to take place. In terms of evaluation for this area of ESP, ongoing
formative assessment with task-related activities are more appropriate rather than summative
tests which can create negative backwash for both learners and teachers.
References
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain.
New York: David McKay Co Inc.
Fcit.usf.edu,. (2015). Classroom Assessment | Basic Concepts. Retrieved from:
http://fcit.usf.edu/assessment/basic/basica.html
Krashen, S. (1998) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall
International, 1988. Retrieved from: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html
Meddings, L., & Thornbury, S. (2009). Teaching Unplugged. Surrey: Delta.
Richards, J. (2010) Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching: Forward, Central, and
Backward Design http://www.professorjackrichards.com/wpcontent/
uploads/Curriculum-Approaches-in-Language-Teaching.pdf
Vygotsky, L (1978) Interaction Between Learning and Development
http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/vygotsky78.pdf
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain.
New York: David McKay Co Inc.
Fcit.usf.edu,. (2015). Classroom Assessment | Basic Concepts. Retrieved from:
http://fcit.usf.edu/assessment/basic/basica.html
Krashen, S. (1998) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall
International, 1988. Retrieved from: http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html
Meddings, L., & Thornbury, S. (2009). Teaching Unplugged. Surrey: Delta.
Richards, J. (2010) Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching: Forward, Central, and
Backward Design http://www.professorjackrichards.com/wpcontent/
uploads/Curriculum-Approaches-in-Language-Teaching.pdf
Vygotsky, L (1978) Interaction Between Learning and Development
http://www.psy.cmu.edu/~siegler/vygotsky78.pdf