Abstract
This mini paper looks at the constructivist approach to language learning and how the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, two of the major scholars of developmental psychology, have influenced it. It also argues that the implementation of a constructivist learning environment constitutes best practice in the young learners’ classroom and examines how learners construct their own knowledge whilst in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Keywords: constructivist, Sociocultural Theory, schemata, disequilibrium
Two primary theorists accredited with modern classroom methodology are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s theory is a scientific approach, whereas Vygotsky more emphasizes the importance of the role that social interaction plays in the building of knowledge – a classic nature / nurture dichotomy. Both approaches contribute to the approach more commonly known as constructivism. One of Vygotsky’s most important ideas is the ZPD, in which he suggests that learners’ performance is improved via the help of peers or a teacher, rather than that which can be learned independently.
Constructivism recognizes that young people construct their own knowledge and this approach is widely-accepted to create a productive, inclusive learning environment. In this process, the role of the teacher becomes more of a facilitator and it is now understood that traditional approaches to learning are now not as conducive to information retention in the long term as traditionally thought.
Literature Review
Piaget’s initial research was published in 1952 but has, amongst others, been further developed by Wadsworth (1996) and Cameron (2001). Vygotsky’s first works came to the West from Russia in the 1930s (although were not introduced until the 1970s, when translations from Russian became available) and Freund’s further experiment with the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in 1990, further highlighted the effectiveness of the constructivist approach. Ozgur (2004) introduces constructivism in the online magazine, The Fountain and sets out some ways that it can be incorporated in the classroom. Lastly, a study by the National University of Colombia investigates the impact of constructivist teaching methods at an English class at a private educational institution.
Jean Piaget
A Frenchman, Jean Piaget(1896 – 1980), developed the scientific theory of Cognitive Constructivism. Piaget’s concern was with how young children function in the world that surrounds them, and how this influences their mental development (Cameron, 2001). His -perspective comes from an innate processing of information, but it was not initially related to education and it is only later research that has highlighted how Piaget's theory can be applied in the classroom. In it, he theorizes that development precedes learning and that we use ‘schemas’ to make sense of our environment (Piaget, 1952).
These schemata are likened to a filing system in the brain, rather like 'index cards' which tell the person how to react and process information. Learning happens when faced with situations our schema cannot process easily, which leads to what he calls ‘disequilibrium’; the brain then either ‘assimilates’ new information or adapts to using new skills. These schemata then produce scripts or processes for carrying out the task. For example, the process of going on a bus journey: looking at the timetable, buying a ticket, waiting at the bus station, embarking on the journey and so on. This information is then retrieved and applied to each situation (Wadsworth, 1996).
Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who is most noted for his Sociocultural Theory which is the idea that social experiences shape the ways that students think and interpret their world. This view of development differs somewhat from Piaget inasmuch as he theorizes that individual cognition occurs in these social situations. For learning, he emphasizes the importance of these situations, which reflects his idea that learning takes place through doing. Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies and suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development (McCleod, 2007).
Vygotsky (1978) defines the ZPD as: "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers". He also advocated that when a student is in the ZPD for a particular task, the provision of appropriate assistance from a peer or teacher will give the student the ability to perform the task effectively (Vygotsky, 1978).
An example of this can be found in Freund’s (1990) study in which children had to choose which items of furniture should be placed in rooms of a doll’s house. Before attempting this, some children were allowed help from a parent before attempting it alone (ZPD) while other children were assigned to work by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning). It was found that found that those who had previously carried out the task with a parent (ZPD) showed improved aptitude when compared with their first attempt at the task. This concluded that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).
Constructivism and the Young Learners’ Classroom
The constructivist classroom is one in which young learners are not instructed in a traditional linear fashion but are, in fact, facilitated to learn in groups by the teacher. This also enables the learning process to be personalized which is proven to help the retention of knowledge (Vygotsky,1978). Guidance and support are provided according to the learners’ needs, which are done in a non-authoritarian manner. Students take part in topic-related activities such as collaborative research, discussions and project groups that then enable groups to work together on the analyses of problems (Ozgur, 2004).
The effectiveness of constructivist communicative activities was studied during qualitative research carried out by The National University of Colombia at a private institution. It found that the implementation of these methods in class positively impacted the students’ attitude towards the English class and on their learning. The research data showed that during the collaborative activities (songs, games, performances and story-telling) students produced a lot of language and communicated using structures accurately. Students were given the opportunity to not only participate, but also to select topics and to decide on how they would develop them. Importantly, the teachers made these activities authentic by adapting them to the students’ real life contexts and interests (Guevara, 2012).
Conclusion
In summary, both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasize the importance of the ability to construct and personalize knowledge and it is clear that constructivist learning environments engage the learner to this end. Gathering, filtering, analyzing, and reflecting on the content provided, results in a more personalized learning experience enabling better knowledge retention. Ultimately, as research shows, there are many benefits to this approach, especially with young learners, where cultural restrictions may play a part in them not contributing in class. One of the biggest advantages of peer collaboration is the lowering of the affective filter and giving students the opportunity to talk together in order to share ideas and to allow the knowledge personalization process to take place. Lastly, as the rote-memorization of content taught in a linear fashion proves to be increasingly limited in effectiveness, the increasing implementation of constructivist classroom approaches are conducive to the development of higher-order thinking skills, as set out in Bloom’s Taxonomy.
REFERENCES
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners.colasula.com.
Retrieved from http://colasula.com/?p=478.
Ersöz, A. (2007). Teaching English to Young Learners. Ankara: EDM Publishing.
Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children's Problem-solving Behavior and Its
Impact on Children's Performance. Child Development, 61, 113-126.
Guevara, D. (2012). Teaching English to Very Young Learners Through Authentic Communicative Performances. 1st ed. [ebook] Retrieved from http://revistas.udistrital.edu.co/ojs/index.php/calj/article/viewFile/3921/5632
McLeod, S. A. (2010). Zone of Proximal Development.
Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Ozer, O. (2004). The Fountain Magazine - Issue - CONSTRUCTIVISM in Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved from http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/CONSTRUCTIVISM-in-Piaget-and-Vygotsky.
Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of
Constructivism. Longman Publishing.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976).The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of
Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100.
Vygotsky, L.S. ([1933] 1978). In L.C. Moll, (ed.) Vygotsky and education: Instructional
Implications and Applications of Socio-Historical Psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
This mini paper looks at the constructivist approach to language learning and how the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, two of the major scholars of developmental psychology, have influenced it. It also argues that the implementation of a constructivist learning environment constitutes best practice in the young learners’ classroom and examines how learners construct their own knowledge whilst in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Keywords: constructivist, Sociocultural Theory, schemata, disequilibrium
Two primary theorists accredited with modern classroom methodology are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s theory is a scientific approach, whereas Vygotsky more emphasizes the importance of the role that social interaction plays in the building of knowledge – a classic nature / nurture dichotomy. Both approaches contribute to the approach more commonly known as constructivism. One of Vygotsky’s most important ideas is the ZPD, in which he suggests that learners’ performance is improved via the help of peers or a teacher, rather than that which can be learned independently.
Constructivism recognizes that young people construct their own knowledge and this approach is widely-accepted to create a productive, inclusive learning environment. In this process, the role of the teacher becomes more of a facilitator and it is now understood that traditional approaches to learning are now not as conducive to information retention in the long term as traditionally thought.
Literature Review
Piaget’s initial research was published in 1952 but has, amongst others, been further developed by Wadsworth (1996) and Cameron (2001). Vygotsky’s first works came to the West from Russia in the 1930s (although were not introduced until the 1970s, when translations from Russian became available) and Freund’s further experiment with the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in 1990, further highlighted the effectiveness of the constructivist approach. Ozgur (2004) introduces constructivism in the online magazine, The Fountain and sets out some ways that it can be incorporated in the classroom. Lastly, a study by the National University of Colombia investigates the impact of constructivist teaching methods at an English class at a private educational institution.
Jean Piaget
A Frenchman, Jean Piaget(1896 – 1980), developed the scientific theory of Cognitive Constructivism. Piaget’s concern was with how young children function in the world that surrounds them, and how this influences their mental development (Cameron, 2001). His -perspective comes from an innate processing of information, but it was not initially related to education and it is only later research that has highlighted how Piaget's theory can be applied in the classroom. In it, he theorizes that development precedes learning and that we use ‘schemas’ to make sense of our environment (Piaget, 1952).
These schemata are likened to a filing system in the brain, rather like 'index cards' which tell the person how to react and process information. Learning happens when faced with situations our schema cannot process easily, which leads to what he calls ‘disequilibrium’; the brain then either ‘assimilates’ new information or adapts to using new skills. These schemata then produce scripts or processes for carrying out the task. For example, the process of going on a bus journey: looking at the timetable, buying a ticket, waiting at the bus station, embarking on the journey and so on. This information is then retrieved and applied to each situation (Wadsworth, 1996).
Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who is most noted for his Sociocultural Theory which is the idea that social experiences shape the ways that students think and interpret their world. This view of development differs somewhat from Piaget inasmuch as he theorizes that individual cognition occurs in these social situations. For learning, he emphasizes the importance of these situations, which reflects his idea that learning takes place through doing. Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies and suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development (McCleod, 2007).
Vygotsky (1978) defines the ZPD as: "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers". He also advocated that when a student is in the ZPD for a particular task, the provision of appropriate assistance from a peer or teacher will give the student the ability to perform the task effectively (Vygotsky, 1978).
An example of this can be found in Freund’s (1990) study in which children had to choose which items of furniture should be placed in rooms of a doll’s house. Before attempting this, some children were allowed help from a parent before attempting it alone (ZPD) while other children were assigned to work by themselves (Piaget's discovery learning). It was found that found that those who had previously carried out the task with a parent (ZPD) showed improved aptitude when compared with their first attempt at the task. This concluded that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).
Constructivism and the Young Learners’ Classroom
The constructivist classroom is one in which young learners are not instructed in a traditional linear fashion but are, in fact, facilitated to learn in groups by the teacher. This also enables the learning process to be personalized which is proven to help the retention of knowledge (Vygotsky,1978). Guidance and support are provided according to the learners’ needs, which are done in a non-authoritarian manner. Students take part in topic-related activities such as collaborative research, discussions and project groups that then enable groups to work together on the analyses of problems (Ozgur, 2004).
The effectiveness of constructivist communicative activities was studied during qualitative research carried out by The National University of Colombia at a private institution. It found that the implementation of these methods in class positively impacted the students’ attitude towards the English class and on their learning. The research data showed that during the collaborative activities (songs, games, performances and story-telling) students produced a lot of language and communicated using structures accurately. Students were given the opportunity to not only participate, but also to select topics and to decide on how they would develop them. Importantly, the teachers made these activities authentic by adapting them to the students’ real life contexts and interests (Guevara, 2012).
Conclusion
In summary, both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasize the importance of the ability to construct and personalize knowledge and it is clear that constructivist learning environments engage the learner to this end. Gathering, filtering, analyzing, and reflecting on the content provided, results in a more personalized learning experience enabling better knowledge retention. Ultimately, as research shows, there are many benefits to this approach, especially with young learners, where cultural restrictions may play a part in them not contributing in class. One of the biggest advantages of peer collaboration is the lowering of the affective filter and giving students the opportunity to talk together in order to share ideas and to allow the knowledge personalization process to take place. Lastly, as the rote-memorization of content taught in a linear fashion proves to be increasingly limited in effectiveness, the increasing implementation of constructivist classroom approaches are conducive to the development of higher-order thinking skills, as set out in Bloom’s Taxonomy.
REFERENCES
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners.colasula.com.
Retrieved from http://colasula.com/?p=478.
Ersöz, A. (2007). Teaching English to Young Learners. Ankara: EDM Publishing.
Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children's Problem-solving Behavior and Its
Impact on Children's Performance. Child Development, 61, 113-126.
Guevara, D. (2012). Teaching English to Very Young Learners Through Authentic Communicative Performances. 1st ed. [ebook] Retrieved from http://revistas.udistrital.edu.co/ojs/index.php/calj/article/viewFile/3921/5632
McLeod, S. A. (2010). Zone of Proximal Development.
Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Ozer, O. (2004). The Fountain Magazine - Issue - CONSTRUCTIVISM in Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved from http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/CONSTRUCTIVISM-in-Piaget-and-Vygotsky.
Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of
Constructivism. Longman Publishing.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976).The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of
Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100.
Vygotsky, L.S. ([1933] 1978). In L.C. Moll, (ed.) Vygotsky and education: Instructional
Implications and Applications of Socio-Historical Psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.